Malik-Shah I () was the third sultan of the Seljuk Empire from 1072 to 1092, under whom the sultanate reached the zenith of its power and influence.
The cause of Malik-Shah's death remains under dispute to this day; according to some scholars, he was poisoned by Abbasid caliph al-Muqtadi, while others say that he was poisoned by the supporters of Nizam al-Mulk.
Etymology
Although he was known by several names, he was mostly known as "Malik-Shah", a combination of the Arabic word
malik (king) and the Persian word
shah (which also means king).
Early life
Malik-Shah was born on 16 August 1055 and spent his youth in
Isfahan. According to the 12th-century
Persian people historian Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi, Malik-Shah had fair skin, was tall and somewhat bulky. In 1064, Malik-Shah, only 9 years old by then, along with
Nizam al-Mulk, the Persian
vizier of the Empire, took part in Alp Arslan's campaign in the
Caucasus. The same year, Malik-Shah was married to Terken Khatun, the daughter of the Karakhanid khan Ibrahim Tamghach-Khan. In 1066, Alp Arslan arranged a ceremony near
Merv, where he appointed Malik-Shah as his heir and also granted him Isfahan as a
fief.
In 1071, Malik-Shah took part in the Syrian campaign of his father, and stayed in Aleppo when his father fought the Byzantine Empire emperor Romanos IV Diogenes at Manzikert. In 1072, Malik-Shah and Nizam al-Mulk accompanied Alp-Arslan during his campaign in Transoxiana against the Karakhanids. However, Alp-Arslan was badly wounded during his expedition, and Malik-Shah shortly took over the army. Alp-Arslan died some days later, and Malik-Shah was declared as the new sultan of the empire.
Campaigns and Battles
Campaign of Northwest (1064)
Malik-Shah joined
his father
Alp Arslan expedition to the northwest in 1064.
He took part in the capture of castles in Georgia and Armenia together with his father Alp Arslan. He advanced along the Aras River with the army under the command of Malik-Shah.
He captured many castles and cities in the region, especially Meryemnişin,
Byurakan and Surmari.
Battle of Kerj Abu Dulaf (1073)
However, right after Malik-Shah's accession, his uncle
Qavurt claimed the throne for himself and sent Malik-Shah a message which said: "I am the eldest brother, and you are a youthful son; I have the greater right to my brother Alp-Arslan's inheritance." Malik-Shah then replied by sending the following message: "A brother does not inherit when there is a son." This message enraged Qavurt, who thereafter occupied Isfahan. In 1073, the Battle of Kerj Abu Dulaf took place near Hamadan, lasting three days. Qavurt was accompanied by his seven sons, and his army consisted of
Turkmen people, while the army of Malik-Shah consisted of
ghilman ("military slaves") and contingents of
Kurdish people and
Arabs troops.
During the battle, the Turks of Malik-Shah's army mutinied against him, but he nevertheless managed to defeat and capture Qavurt. Qavurt then begged for mercy and in return promised to retire to Oman. However, Nizam al-Mulk declined the offer, claiming that sparing him was an indication of weakness. After some time, Qavurt was strangled to death with a bowstring, while two of his sons were blinded. After having dealt with that problem, Malik-Shah appointed Qutlugh-Tegin as the governor of Fars province and Sav-Tegin as the governor of Kerman.
Expedition of Transoxiana (1073)
Malik-Shah then turned his attention towards the Karakhanids, who had after the death of
Alp Arslan invaded
Tukharistan, which was ruled by Malik-Shah's brother Ayaz, who was unable to repel the Karakhanids and was killed by them. Malik-Shah went on a campaign to
Transoxiana with his army in 1073. Malik-Shah finally managed to repel the Karakhanids and after
Balkh and
Herat, he headed towards Termez and captured
Termez, giving the key of the city to
Savtegin.
Malik-Shah then appointed his other brother Shihab al-Din Tekish as the ruler of
Tokharistan and
Balkh. During the same period, the
Ghaznavid ruler Ibrahim was seizing Seljuk territory in northern
Greater Khorasan, but was defeated by Malik-Shah, who then made peace with the latter and gave his daughter
Gawhar Khatun in marriage to Ibrahim's son Mas'ud III.
Campaign of Georgia (1076)
George II, who ascended to the throne of Georgia after the death of Bagrat IV, attacked the Seljuk forces at Partskhisi in 1073-1074 and defeated them in the Battle of Partskhisi. Later, George II, who captured some places including the Şavşat Castle, broke the agreements his father Bagrat IV had made with the Seljuks. Not wanting to allow the Georgians to grow stronger, Malik-Shah I used these attacks as an excuse and went on a campaign against Georgia in 1076.
As a result of the events, Malik-Shah I came to
Kartli and defeated the Georgians. Malik-Shah I later took
Ganja from Fadlun and gave the administration of the region to
Savtegin, then returned to his capital with his army.
Campaign of Georgia (1078-79)
Savtegin went on a campaign against the George II. He was defeated in the battle near Partskhisi and retreated. Thereupon, Malik-Shah I organized a second campaign against Georgia in 1078-1079. Malik-Shah, who entered Georgia, invaded the Somkheth region with his army, captured Şmasvilde and put things in order, and returned, leaving new forces for
Savtegin. After Malik-Shah returned,
Savtegin moved against the Georgians, but George II defeated him once again in the battle near Partskhisi.
After
Savtegin was defeated by the Georgians, Malik-Shah sent Emir Ahmed to Georgia. Ahmed defeated the Georgians and captured
Kars,
Erzurum,
Oltu and some cities subject to Byzantium.
The following year, the Seljuks captured Şavşat,
Adjara,
Kartli, Ardanuç and the areas up to
Trabzon.
George II went to Isfahan and accepted to be a vassal of Malik-Shah.
Campaign of Caucasus (1086)
Malik-Shah I organized an expedition to the
Caucasus in 1086. As a result of this expedition, he strengthened his control over the emirs, kings and princes in the region. After this expedition, George II went to
Isfahan again in 1088 and appeared before Malik-Shah I. When George agreed to pay taxes and become a Seljuk vassal, Sultan Malik-Shah gave him back
Kakheti and Hereti.
Expedition of Northern Syria (1086)
As a result of the struggle for dominance among the emirs, Malik-Shah decided to organize an expedition to Northern Syria.
Malik-Shah moved towards Northern Syria with his army in 1086. Malik-Shah his army captured
Aleppo,
Antakya,
Edessa,
and Qal'at Ja'bar Castle during his Northern Syria campaign. Later, they captured
Manbij,
Shaizar,
Latakia,
Kafartab and Apamea.
Expedition of Transoxiana (1087)
In 1087, due to internal unrest in
Turkestan, Malik-Shah decided to organize another expedition to
Transoxiana. Malik-Shah moved with his army to the
Transoxiana region of
Turkestan.
He captured many castles belonging to the Karakhanids, especially
Bukhara,
Samarkand,
Balasagun, Isfijab and
Kashgar.
When Malik-Shah arrived at Uzkand with his army, the Eastern Karakhanid ruler Bugra Kara Khan Harun came to Malik-Shah and agreed to be his vassal and pay taxes.
In addition, the Western Karakhanid ruler Ahmed was captured by the Seljuks after the capture of
Samarkand, and Malik-Shah appointed one of his emirs to the Western Karakhanid throne.
Domestic policy and Ismailis
In 1092,
Nizam al-Mulk was assassinated near Sihna, on the road to
Baghdad, by a man disguised as a
Sufi.
As the assassin was immediately cut down by Nizam's bodyguard, it became impossible to establish with certainty who had sent him. One theory had it that he was an Assassin, since these assassins regularly made attempts on the lives of Seljuk officials and rulers during the 11th century. Another theory had it that the attack had been instigated by Malik-Shah, who may have grown tired of his overmighty vizier.
After Nizam al-Mulk's death, Malik-Shah appointed another Persian named Taj al-Mulk Abu'l Ghana'im as his vizier. Malik-Shah then went to Baghdad and decided to depose
al-Muqtadi and sent him the following message: "You must relinquish Baghdad to me, and depart to any land you choose." This was because Malik-Shah wanted to appoint his grandson (or nephew) Ja'far as the new caliph.
The Sultan had a good relationship with the Shias at large except for the Ismailis of Hassan ibn Sabbah. Followers of Sabbah managed to occupy the Alamut Castle near Qazvin, and the army under the command of the emir Arslan-Tash, sent by Malik Shah, could not recapture it. The Sultan's ghilman, Kizil Sarug, besieged the Daru fortress in Quhistan, but ceased hostilities in connection with the death of Malik Shah on November 19, 1092, possibly due to poisoning.[Stroeva L.V. "The State of the Ismailis in Iran in the XI–XIII centuries". Publishing House: "Science", 1978. pp. 67, 69, 71]
Death and aftermath
Malik-Shah died on 19 November 1092 while he was hunting. He was most likely poisoned by the caliph or the supporters of Nizam al-Mulk. Under the orders of Terken Khatun, Malik-Shah's body was taken back to Isfahan, where it was buried in a
madrasa.
Upon his death, the Seljuk Empire fell into chaos, as rival successors and regional governors carved up their empire and waged war against each other. The situation within the Seljuk lands was further complicated by the beginning of the First Crusade, which detached large portions of Syria and Palestine from Muslim control in 1098 and 1099. The success of the First Crusade is at least in part attributable to the political confusion which resulted from Malik-Shah's death.[Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Oxford History of the Crusades, (Oxford University Press, 2002), 213.]
Family
Malikshah had many wives and concubines and multiple children born from them. Principal wives were:
-
Terken Khatun (b. 1053, m. 1065. d. 1094
-
Dawud (d. 1082)
-
Ahmed (1077–1088)
-
Mahmud (b. 1087–88)
-
Abu'l-Qasim (d. childhood)
-
A son (d. childhood, buried in Ray)
-
Mah-i Mulk Khatun
-
Zubayda Khatun (b. 1056
Concubines:
-
Taj al-Din Khatun Safariyya (also known as Bushali,
-
Unknown mothers:
-
Tughril
-
Amir Khumarin (an albino)
-
Sitara Khatun (m. Garshasp II, son of Ali ibn Faramurz)
-
Salkim Khatun
-
Safiya Khatun (m. Taj al-Din Abu'l-Fazl Nasr bin Halef, ruler of Sistan)
-
A daughter (m. Sultan Shah, son of Qavurt)
-
A daughter (m. Ispahbud Taj al-Mulk Mardavij, son of Ali ibn Mardavij)
-
Terken Khatun
-
Rukn al-Din Mahmud Khan (r. 1132–1144), succeeded Sanjar in Khurasan.
-
A daughter (m. 1101–02 Abdulaziz bin Omar bin Maza, governor of Bukhara)
Legacy
The 18th century English historian
Edward Gibbon wrote of him:
Personality
Malik-Shah displayed substantial interest in science, art and literature.
The Isfahan Observatory or Malikshah Observatory was constructed during his reign, closing shortly after his death in 1092.
It was from the work at the observatory that the
Jalali calendar was adopted.
He thought highly of the art of architecture as well, as he enjoyed building new and splendid mosques in his capital,
Isfahan. He was religiously tolerant which is supported by the fact that during his reign, subjects of the Seljuk Empire enjoyed internal peace and religious tolerance. Malik-Shah also showed lenience towards exquisite poetry as his reign is also memorable for the poetry of
Omar Khayyam.
[
]
Despite being arguably the most powerful monarch of his era, it is believed that Malik-Shah was unpretentious and modest. The legend has it that during the years that were hugely successful for Seljuks on all fronts, Malik-Shah, overwhelmed by the imperial might of his dynasty, used to climb to the top of a hill and say the following: "Oh Almighty God, I will somehow cope with the problem of hunger, please save me from the threat of abundance".
Malik Shah did not spend as much time on campaign as his prominent predecessor Tughril or his father Alp Arslan did. Isfahan became securely established as his chief city of residence, although in the latter years of his rule Malik Shah preferred to winter in Baghdad. Whereas Alp Arslan had spent just over a year out of his decade-long reign in Isfahan, Malik Shah resided there for more than half of his rule. Isfahan also served as the burial site of Malik Shah, his descendants, as well as celebrated bureaucrats of the sultanate like Nizam al-Mulk. Malik Shah's decision of residing in a capital far away from the centers of Turkmen settlement around Merv, Rayy, Hamadan, and Azerbaijan could well be explained by the increasing distance between him and his nomadic subjects.
Sources
